Taoist culture is diverse and vibrant, encompassing a wide range of elements. In summary, it primarily includes the following aspects:
1. Taoist Theology:
At the core of Taoist culture lies Taoist theology, which revolves around the belief in immortals and deities. As a mature religion, Taoism has its own theological theories that attract followers to pursue the goal of achieving immortality and becoming powerful immortals through diligent efforts. This belief in immortals constitutes the core of Taoist theological discourse. From its inception, Taoism established the belief in immortals, drawing from ancient philosophy, primitive religions, and ancient practices of health cultivation to build its theoretical and behavioral systems concerning beliefs in immortals, laying the foundation for the development of Taoist theology. Under the attraction of the "belief in immortals," Taoists engaged in various cultural activities, creating a complex system of Taoist culture.
2. Taoist Ethics:
Taoist ethical and moral principles are reflected in Taoist rules and precepts. These concepts, influenced by Daoist, Confucian, and Buddhist ethics, have become increasingly complex over time. Notably, Confucianism's emphasis on loyalty and filial piety has significantly impacted Taoist ethical beliefs. However, unlike Confucianism, Taoist ethics mainly rely on the power of deities to enforce them. Taoism guides people to consciously adhere to ethical principles by promising the ideal of immortality, while also using the divine power to reward good deeds and punish evil ones, creating a greater impact on moral guidelines in society. Additionally, Taoist moral teachings concentrate and systematize ethical ideas through admonitory texts, making them more centralized, systematic, and accessible.
3. Taoist Philosophy:
While previously considered a folk religion lacking philosophical speculation, Taoism is now widely recognized for its philosophical content. Taoist philosophy serves the doctrines of Taoism and forms the theoretical foundation for its teachings. It draws extensively from Chinese philosophy, particularly Daoist philosophy, incorporating rational arguments to enrich its philosophical content, including worldview, epistemology, ethics, and views on life. Central to Taoist philosophy is the concept of immortality, with discussions on the existence of immortals and the means by which humans can achieve immortality forming the main aspect of its ideological system.
4. Taoist Alchemy (Golden Elixir):
Taoist alchemy, comprising both external and internal alchemy, is a significant aspect of Taoism. External alchemy, commonly known as alchemy, involves the refining of elixirs using materials such as cinnabar, lead, mercury, and sulfur, aiming to produce miraculous pills that grant immortality. While the consumption of these elixirs does not guarantee immortality, the process of alchemical refinement inadvertently contributed to the advancement of ancient Chinese science. As external alchemy declined, internal alchemy emerged, focusing on cultivating the body's essence, energy, and spirit through practices such as breath control, meditation, and visualization, greatly influencing later qigong practices.
5. Taoist Medicine:
Since its inception, Taoism has viewed medical practice as a means of spreading its teachings and benefiting society. With the establishment of Taoist theories during the Wei and Jin dynasties, Taoists regarded medicine as a crucial auxiliary means and essential knowledge for achieving longevity. Guided by the principle of "harmony with nature," Taoist medical thought developed into a distinctive approach to human medicine. Taoist physicians accumulated rich medical experience through long-term medical practice, inventing various Taoist medical techniques and health preservation methods aimed at strengthening the body, prolonging life, and promoting overall well-being, such as sexual techniques, dietary practices, and abstinence from grains.
6、Taoist Culture
Feng shui culture is an ancient cultural phenomenon in China, which has profoundly influenced Chinese society, economy, and culture. Taoist architecture serves as places for Taoist priests to preach, worship gods and immortals, and hold various religious ceremonies. It is not only influenced by Taoist culture, but its architectural design also reflects feng shui principles and concepts.
Essentially, feng shui culture and Taoist culture are two different things. Feng shui is based on the survival needs of secular society, seeking an ideal environment in real life, while Taoism is based on the transcendent "immortal realm" and "immortal environment," pursuing an ideal environment in a spiritual world. However, both express aspirations for a better life and the pursuit of an ideal environment in terms of content and form, creating a close connection between the two. Both incorporate ideas such as yin and yang, the five elements, the Book of Changes (Yijing), the eight trigrams (bagua), the nine stars, and theories of qi. The ideal environmental model of the four mythical creatures in feng shui, including the Azure Dragon, the White Tiger, the Vermilion Bird, and the Black Tortoise, has deep roots in Taoism, corresponding to the four guardian gods in Taoism. Terms such as symbols, rituals, and spells in Taoism are also popular in feng shui.
Taoist classics such as the Daozang contain works on feng shui, such as the "Zhaijing" (Treatise on Dwellings). Taoist collections also include records of feng shui masters "assessing land," and many Taoist priests are also folk feng shui masters. Because of the numerous connections between feng shui culture and Taoist culture, Taoist architecture not only reflects Taoist culture but also contains a large number of feng shui principles and concepts. Feng shui principles and concepts have always influenced Taoist architecture throughout the history of Taoism's development. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Taoism was established, there were already places for "cultivation," and during the Three Kingdoms period, there were concepts of "twenty-four cultivations" and "twenty-eight cultivations." The early "cultivations" in Taoism already embodied the connotations of feng shui culture. For example, the "Yangping Cultivation" is recorded in the "Yunji Qiqian" as located in Jiulong County, Pengzhou, Changjun, one hundred and eighty miles away from Chengdu, with the Dao passing through the Luo River and two cypress trees growing on the divine water; there is a spring in the southwest, which diverts the water eastward to return to the river.
In the records, the author describes matters such as the route, gates, springs, transportation, and directions of the cultivation sites, which are exactly what feng shui culture values regarding the geographical environment such as terrain, water flow, and orientation. The descriptive hints about the geographical situation of early Taoist cultivation sites in the materials indicate that when establishing places for cultivation at the beginning of Taoism, considerations were given not only to the convenience of Taoists, worshippers, and visitors' travel, basic living needs, and factors conducive to preaching and evangelism but also consciously or unconsciously applied the "systematic principles" of feng shui culture. The so-called "systematic principles" refer to comprehensive consideration of objective environmental factors such as central location, convenient transportation, regional resources, and geological conditions.
Taoist architecture is a profound reflection of Taoist culture, vividly embodying Taoist ideology and belief systems, and its architectural design is deeply influenced by Taoist culture. Moreover, Taoist architecture has been influenced by feng shui culture since the establishment of Taoism, leaving its mark on many aspects of feng shui culture. Strengthening research on Taoist architecture and feng shui culture can help us understand traditional Chinese culture comprehensively and multilaterally, and also provide useful references for socialist modernization construction.
7、The theory of cultivation
Cultivators borrow falsehoods to achieve truth. By refining the four elements into the physical body, they cultivate the indestructible true body. Throughout the ages, there are no immortal bodies, only eternal dharma bodies. As it is said: "Originally, the true nature is called the golden elixir, the four great elements are refined into a solid entity."
The physical body is composed of the four great elements, although it is said to be bestowed by parents, but the blood of parents is mundane and after decades, how can it not decay? What are the four great elements? Earth, water, wind, fire. Earth forms bones, muscles, organs, and viscera; water forms the blood in the body; wind forms the respiratory system; fire forms the constant body temperature.
The cultivation of truth can be divided into real-world cultivation and fictional cultivation. The terms and realms of fictional cultivation are not practical and are only the words of novelists for entertainment.
The external elixir technique of longevity achieved through the refinement of the golden elixir and the consumption of substances has gradually declined. The current cultivation world mainly focuses on the internal alchemy of the golden elixir, also known as alchemy, which emphasizes the cultivation of spirit.
The Daodejing of Laozi once said, "The Dao gives birth to One, One gives birth to Two, Two gives birth to Three, Three gives birth to all things." The path of alchemy involves the return of Three to Two, Two to One, and One merging with the Dao. Its terms include refining essence into qi, refining qi into spirit, refining spirit to return to emptiness (later supplemented by refining emptiness to merge with the Dao, and the theory of shattering emptiness). It is the process of returning essence and qi. Because human essence and qi are insufficient, a method of replenishing essence and qi, called refining essence to cultivate qi, is created to enable people to make up for deficiencies from the acquired to the innate, in order to begin cultivation.
Since the late Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties, the School of Lesser Yang has had prominent figures such as Zhong Liquan, Lu Dongbin, Chen Tuan, Ma Yidaozhe, Huolong Zhenren, Liu Cao, Zhang Boduan, etc., who have opened up their teachings widely. They have passed through several dynasties including the Song, Jin, Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties, gradually forming various sects such as the Southern, Northern, Central, Eastern, Western, Qingcheng, and Wuliu Schools. Therefore, in the field of internal alchemy, it is said that the Wen Shi School is the highest, while the Lesser Yang School is the largest. In addition, there was Zhang Sanfeng, a true person from the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, who integrated the strengths of the Wen Shi and Lesser Yang Schools, creating the Sanfeng School (also known as the Hidden Immortal School), which neither clings to action nor inaction, but creates a pure path in the integration of yin and yang, embodying characteristics of both the Southern and Northern Schools.
These numerous sects can be roughly classified into three categories in terms of their cultivation methods: one is the grafting method of dual cultivation of yin and yang, the second is the meditation method of solitary cultivation, and the third is a combination of the grafting and solitary cultivation sects.
According to different sects, their doctrines vary, and each person's situation is different, so the cultivation methods also vary endlessly. Secular cultivation sects are divided into East, West, South, North, and Central sects, while reclusive sects are called ancient immortal sects (there are also distinctions among ancient immortals, which will not be discussed here). In short, the method of cultivation should not be practiced without guidance, otherwise there will be endless troubles. Nowadays, those who aspire to immortality must also beware of being deceived.
The culture of Taoist talismans originated from early human worship of natural divine powers, and under the inspiration of ancient scripts and seal scripts, began to imitate natural phenomena such as clouds, birds, and beasts. They used unique symbols and graphic methods to record them on specific items and materials, gradually forming a vast and complex system of talismans. Its content not only represents the will and commands of heavenly deities but also bestows many hopes, prayers, and worship on people. There is a legend in ancient times about driving away ghosts and avoiding disasters by crossing the mountain peach tree. In the Eastern Sea, there is a large peach tree on Mount Duoshuo, under which there are two deities, Shentu and Yulei, who can dispel illnesses and ward off hundreds of ghosts. Therefore, ancient people made two pieces of peach wood into "peach talismans," each depicting the images of "Shentu" and "Yulei" respectively, which were the earliest written talismans.
The art of talismans originated from shamans and was first seen in the Eastern Han Dynasty. The "Book of Later Han" records: "There was Qu Shengqing in Henan, who was skilled in creating talismans and elixirs, repelling and dispelling ghosts and deities." It is also recorded: Fei Changfang learned the Tao from a medicine seller, and the medicine seller "created a talisman, saying, 'This is to control the ghosts and deities on the earth.' ... He was able to treat various diseases and whip away ghosts, and even command the Earth God." "Later, he lost his talisman and was killed by numerous ghosts."
In the long process of Taoist transmission and study of talismanic arts, a variety of talismanic methods and numerous talismanic books were created. The created talismans are difficult to count, with thousands of styles. In summary, there are mainly four types:
1. Complex characters: Mostly composed of two or more small characters, with a few composed of multiple strokes twisted and curved. Mainly found in the "Taiping Scripture."
2. Cloud seals: It is said to be the celestial book manifested by heavenly deities, actually imitating the shapes of clouds and changing forms or ancient seals, created as talismans. Mainly found in the "Lingbao Wuliang Du Ren Shangpin Miao Jing."
3. Spiritual talismans, treasure talismans: Composed of more complex circles, dots, and lines.
4. Image talismans: Talismans where the images of heavenly deities and characters are integrated into one. Many such talismans have also been discovered in excavations of ancient tombs.
The lineage and origin of the Taoist talismanic sects - the art of talismans originated from shamans. The "Book of Later Han" records: "Qu Shengqing was skilled in creating talismans and elixirs." The "Book of Later Han, Treatise on Techniques" records that Fei Changfang learned the Tao from a medicine seller, and the medicine seller "created a talisman... He was able to treat various diseases." The "Yunji Qiqian" in volume seven, "Talisman Characters," states: "Use the essence of the Tao, spread it with simple ink, and combine it with the essence of things." Some Taoists and qi cultivators apply qi to talismans when writing them, using them to treat illnesses, which may have certain therapeutic effects. Taoist scriptures say: "Talismans have no fixed form, but they are effective through qi."
Talismanic arts are the primary practice method of Daoism's Zhengyi School. During the Song and Yuan Dynasties, there were three major talismanic sects (referred to as the "Three Mountain Talismans"): the Maoshan Shangqing School, the Gezao Mountain Lingbao School, and the Longhu Mountain Tian Shi Dao.
Incantations, blessings, and curses, commonly used in Daoist texts, are languages used to establish contact with deities, largely inherited from ancient shamanic practices. Like talismans, incantations are a form of magic used to invoke deities to achieve desired outcomes.
Talismans, also known as "divine talismans," "talismanic characters," "ink talismans," "dan letters," etc., are special symbols drawn in vermilion or ink on yellow paper, silk, or wooden boards. They resemble seal script and are difficult to discern, giving off a mysterious and inscrutable aura. The "Xuanmen Dayi" explains that divine talismans originate from "dragon and phoenix seal characters," and are the characters of miraculous talismanic writing." Daoism claims that these symbolic characters are formed naturally by imitating the "qi of the Three Primordial Energies, Five Virtues, and Eight Assemblies" in the heavens.
The procedure and technique of drawing talismans: Talismans serve as secret treasures to communicate between humans and gods, so they cannot be drawn casually. Hence the saying, "Drawing talismans without understanding the principles will make ghosts and gods laugh; if one understands the principles, it will shock ghosts and gods." There are hundreds of methods for drawing talismans, some involve visualizing deities while drawing, others require chanting incantations... The process involves meticulous steps such as preparing paper, grinding ink, and wielding the brush, making it complex and intricate enough to make practitioners feel dizzy and dazzled.
Ancient Chinese cultivators believed that talismans and incantations, as the foundation of the five arts of mountain, medicine, divination, destiny, and physiognomy, were the mediums and channels through which practitioners could communicate with the heavens (spirit realm). Through this channel, one could harness the power of celestial spirits to achieve blessings, ward off disasters, expel illness, and save lives. A talisman consists of five elements: "talisman head," "principal deity," "talisman body," "talisman feet," and "talisman gall." To illustrate with an analogy, the talisman head is like a person's head; the principal deity is like a person's thoughts and heart; the talisman body is like the digestive organs in a person's abdomen, where the effects of the talismanic action take place; the talisman feet are like a person's feet; and the talisman gall is like a person's courage. A talisman without talisman gall is like a door without a lock, allowing anyone to enter freely. Therefore, talisman gall holds a significant position in relation to the talisman.
Talisman heads: Since ancient times, there have been many talismanic sects, each venerating different patriarchs, hence their talismanic codes differ. For example, the commonly seen "three hooks" on many talismanic charts represent the Three Pure Ones (Yuqing Yuanshi Tianzun, Shangqing Lingbao Tianzun, Taiqing Daode Tianzun) or the Three Realms' deities (City God, Earth God, Ancestral Master). The three hooks represent the Three Pure Ones on the entire talisman, and under orders and divine names, they represent the Three Realms' deities. When drawing these "three hooks," one should silently recite the incantation: "With one stroke, the world moves; with two strokes, the Patriarch's sword; with three strokes, malevolent spirits and demons are banished a thousand miles away." Each stroke and phrase must be precise, which is known as "stepping the talisman head." There are also talismanic orders, thunder orders... As talisman heads, they come in various forms, varying depending on the sect. Generally, when invoking gods or deploying troops, "orders" are commonly used as talisman heads. If there are no symbols representing the Three Pure Ones, an incantation must be recited: "The sky is round and the earth is square, governed by the nine laws; as I write, ten thousand ghosts are subdued."
Talisman gall is the soul of a talisman, its master. Whether a talisman can fully unleash its efficacy largely depends on whether it has talisman gall guarding it. Writing a talisman is generally referred to as "entering talisman gall," meaning to invite patriarchs (deities) to preside over the talisman, guarding its gates. Commonly seen talisman galls include the character "gang," "well," "horse," "change," and so on. But what exactly is talisman gall? It is composed of secret characters.
Crossing talisman feet is used to conclude the talisman gall, marking the end of the talisman writing process. It also holds a crucial position.
The ritual procedure of drawing talismans: Drawing talismans follows a specific procedure and must not be rushed or done out of order. Generally, talisman drawing involves setting up an altar and performing rituals (especially for Daoist priests), known as the "main altar ritual." The main altar ritual includes a talismanic order that Daoist practitioners usually believe in—Earth God, City God, Eastern Azure Emperor, Southern Red Emperor, Western White Emperor, Northern Black Emperor, Vermilion Bird General, Black Tortoise General, Black Kill General, etc. For example, the main talismanic order seen in the main altar ritual diagram set up by ancient Dunhuang Daoist priests. Daoist practitioners also construct altars and two heaven emperor seals. These two seals are carved on the altar, both front and back. Some do not set up the "main altar ritual" or construct altars, such as the "invocation of celestial scoop method." When invoking the celestial scoop, three plates of fruit, three cups of tea, three cups of rice wine, and incense candles are offered on the shrine in the main hall... or offered at a temporary location outside the house, akin to a dining table serving as an altar.
Before drawing talismans, one must first purify the mind—focus and concentrate, be sincere and earnest, clear away distracting thoughts, maintain single-mindedness, and cleanse the body, face, and hands, rinse the mouth, and prepare offerings such as fruits, rice wine, incense candles, as well as brush, ink, vermilion, and yellow paper. Regarding these items, Daoist priests first recite divine incantations to imbue them with divine power.
Taboos for drawing talismans: The Dragon Boat Festival is an auspicious day for drawing talismans and making talisman water, and talisman drawing and making are often conducted on this day. Drawing talismans on four specific days each year is forbidden, as doing so is not only ineffective but also harmful. These four days are the 9th day of the 3rd lunar month, the 2nd day of the 6th lunar month, the 6th day of the 9
th lunar month, and the 2nd day of the 12th lunar month. The best times for drawing talismans are midnight or the hour of the pig. It is said that this time is when yang energy diminishes and yin energy increases, and when yin and yang intersect, making it the most spiritually potent time. The hours of the horse, rabbit, and rooster are also suitable.
Although Daoist talismanic arts carry a strong sense of mystery, from a formal perspective, talismans are also a form of calligraphic art with abstract meanings. Early Daoist talismans were essentially based on clerical script, a combination of characters from Han dynasty clerical script. Therefore, drawing talismans became a unique form of Daoist calligraphy. Later, in order to enhance the sense of mystery, Daoism boldly modified Chinese characters, breaking free from the constraints of character strokes, and incorporating various ancient writing styles, especially cursive script, creating a form of writing that people find difficult to recognize.
However, talismans are not arbitrary creations of Daoist priests but unique characters with certain rules. The Tang Dynasty literary critic Zhang Huaiji once said: "According to Daoist tradition, there are books of heavenly emperors, earthly emperors, and human emperors, each with several hundred characters, their texts still intact, resembling talismans, yet their phonetic meanings not transmitted."
The Ming Dynasty's Chen Jiru also mentioned in "Records of Daoist Books" that "Daoist book learning is detailed in the three caves' scriptures," believing that there are a total of 32 styles of Daoist script, including "original text," "cloud seal," "eight styles of calligraphy," "symbols," "eight manifestations," "jade script secrets," "imperial script," "celestial script," "dragon marks," "phoenix script," "jade inscriptions in gold script," "stone characters," "inscription characters," "jade characters," "jade inscriptions," "jade writings," "letter to enlighten," "jade slips," "dan letters," "jade decrees," "books of good fortune," "compilations of silver," "red script," "true fire refined script," "golden pot ink characters," "jade slips," "purple characters," "natural characters," "completed characters," "jade inlay script," "stone slips," "jade inlay flower script," and so on.
For ordinary people, these Daoist script styles are like heavenly scripts, impossible to discern. Even the Song Dynasty's great calligrapher Su Shi sighed at the characters, saying in "Records of Heavenly Seals": "The brushwork of Daoist masters is wonderful, but the characters are unrecognizable." Ming Dynasty's Tao Zongyi also believed, in "An Overview of Calligraphy History," that Daoist calligraphy "resembles flying white but not reality, with bold brushstrokes, unable to be learned." It can be seen that Daoist calligraphy has its own system and requirements. It originates from calligraphy but is different from ordinary calligraphy. However, its bold innovation in characters and imaginative changes give Daoist talisman drawing undeniable aesthetic value.
