The essence of Laozi's philosophy is primarily contained in the text "Laozi," commonly divided into two parts, comprising around five thousand words, written in rhymed verses conveying philosophical insights. The earliest known version of "Laozi" likely emerged towards the end of the Spring and Autumn period or the beginning of the Warring States period. Subsequently, the text of "Laozi" underwent continual transmission, orally and in writing, undergoing successive editing, arrangement, refinement, and enrichment, eventually culminating in the "He's Laozi" during the Western Han Dynasty. The commentary by He's disciple, He Yan, titled "lao tzuZhu" (also known as "lao tzuZhangju"), divided the text into eighty-one chapters, with the first thirty-seven chapters designated as the "Dao Jing" and the remaining forty-four chapters as the "De Jing," hence the title "Dao De Jing." Among the extant versions, besides He's edition, other notable ones include Yan Zun's "Dao De Zhi Gui Lun" from the Han Dynasty, Wang Bi's "lao tzuZhu" from the Three Kingdoms period, and Fu Yi's "Dao De Jing Gu Ben Bian" from the Tang Dynasty, with Wang Bi's edition exerting the most significant influence.
Laozi's philosophical system revolves around the concept of the "Dao" (the Way), as he endeavors to encapsulate the unity and essence of the universe through it. In his view of nature, the "Dao" constitutes the primordial source from which all things in the universe evolve and manifest. It serves as the universal principle underlying the existence of all things, giving birth to and nurturing them. The "Dao" also embodies the objective natural laws governing both the cosmos and human affairs. Furthermore, Laozi's philosophy incorporates a rich vein of simple dialectical thought, positing that all phenomena contain two opposing aspects and are subject to constant motion and change, with the overarching trend being a movement towards contrary directions, ultimately returning to the "Dao."
Laozi's teachings also offer valuable intellectual resources for various aspects of modern human life. For instance, the categories and methods of Laozi's Daoist philosophy can enrich global philosophy, his dialectical organic thought can help humanity move beyond mechanistic views, his theory of stillness and emptiness can inspire practices of mental and physical regulation and promote spiritual well-being, and his philosophy of transcendence can aid in overcoming egocentrism. It can be anticipated that as globalization unfolds, the influence of Laozi's philosophy on the world will become even more profound and extensive.
Introduction to Laozi:
There are various accounts in history regarding the figure of Laozi. Sima Qian's "Records of the Grand Historian" records three Laozis: Lao Dan, Lao Laizi, and Taishi Dan. The first two lived towards the end of the Spring and Autumn period, roughly contemporaneous with Confucius, while the latter lived during the Warring States period. Scholars generally believe that lao tzurefers to Lao Dan (born around 581 BC or 571 BC, year of death unknown), whose surname was Li, given name Er, and courtesy name Boyang, posthumously titled Dan. He hailed from Kuxian, Chu State (present-day Luyi, Henan, some say Woyang County, Anhui). Lao Dan's family served as historiographers for the Zhou dynasty for generations. He once served as the "Keeper of the Archives" (a historiographer in charge of managing royal records) during the Zhou dynasty. Later, to avoid internal strife, he retreated to his hometown. It is said that when lao tzuleft the capital, the gatekeeper and his close friend Yin Xi urged him to write what later became known as the "Laozi" book. The biography in "Records of the Grand Historian" records it as follows: "lao tzucultivated virtue, and his studies focused on anonymity and obscurity. After residing in Zhou for a long time and witnessing its decline, he decided to depart. When he arrived at the pass, the keeper, Yin Xi, said: 'Master, you are about to conceal yourself. Please write a book for me.' So lao tzuwrote the Upper and Lower Chapters, expressing the essence of Dao and virtue in over five thousand words, and then departed, and no one knows where he ended up."
lao tzuwas a profound thinker, highly respected by Confucius, who is said to have sought his advice on Zhou rituals. lao tzuwas a great ancient Chinese philosopher, thinker, literary figure, and historian, the founder and main representative of the Daoist school of thought, posthumously recognized as the ancestor of the Li surname by the Tang dynasty. lao tzuranks among the top hundred historical figures in the world. His work "Dao De Jing" (also known as "Laozi") remains extant, its core essence being simple dialectics advocating governance through non-action. According to UNESCO statistics in the 1980s, among the world's cultural classics, after the Bible, the "Dao De Jing" had the highest number of translations into foreign languages. Laozi's thought has had a significant influence on the development of Chinese philosophy and, alongside Zhuangzi in later ages, is known as Lao-Zhuang. lao tzuis acclaimed as the foremost of the three Eastern sages and ranked by The New York Times as the foremost among the top ten writers of ancient and modern times. In terms of self-cultivation, lao tzuis the progenitor of Daoist practices emphasizing humility, non-contention, and non-action. Politically, he advocated governance through non-action and tacit teaching. In terms of power, lao tzuemphasized the principle of reversal upon reaching extremes. Because lao tzuis the founder of Daoism, he was also known in ancient times as "Supreme Venerable Lord."
Laozi's Departure from the Pass:
The account of Laozi's departure from the pass is recorded in Sima Qian's "Records of the Grand Historian" under the "Biographies of lao tzuand Han Feizi." It states: "lao tzucultivated virtue, and his studies focused on anonymity and obscurity. After residing in Zhou for a long time and witnessing its decline, he decided to depart. When he arrived at the pass, the keeper, Yin Xi, said: 'Master, you are about to conceal yourself. Please write a book for me.' So lao tzuwrote the Upper and Lower Chapters, expressing the essence of Dao and virtue in over five thousand words, and then departed, and no one knows where he ended up." This means that lao tzudedicated himself to the study of morality and Dao, with the aim of remaining hidden and avoiding fame. After living in the capital of Zhou for a long time and observing the decline of the royal court, he left Luoyi towards the west. Upon reaching Hangu Pass, at the request of the gatekeeper Yin Xi, lao tzuwrote a philosophical work in two parts, elucidating the essence of Dao and virtue in over five thousand words, and then left, with his final destination unknown.
Tang dynasty historian Sima Zhen's "Annotated Records of the Grand Historian" cites "Biographies of Immortals," stating: "lao tzuembarked on a journey to the west, and the gatekeeper Yin Xi saw purple qi floating above the pass, knowing that a sage was about to appear. Indeed, he saw lao tzuarriving on a green bull." This means that when lao tzuleft the capital, the gatekeeper Yin Xi observed purple qi floating above the city, indicating the emergence of a sage. Sure enough, he saw lao tzuarriving on a green bull.
Philosophical Thought:
The Essence of the "Dao":
The core of Laozi's philosophical system is the "Dao." It is believed that the Dao possesses metaphysical qualities; it is the source of the universe. In the "Laozi," the "Dao" is described as a real, undifferentiated entity, devoid of concrete form or name. The Dao is considered profound and deep. Within its haziness, there exist images; within its haziness, all things exist. It is profound and obscure, containing subtle essences. These subtle essences are real and verifiable. Throughout history, the name of the Dao has endured, serving as a reference to the origin of all things. The enigmatic and subtle nature of the Dao is related to its status as the essence of the diverse and complex world. It transcends phenomena and serves as the absolute principle of creation for all things. Additionally, it is the matrix and source of all things. The Dao is not perceivable; it is beyond sensory perception. It is described as "one," "simple," and "vast," possessing infinite qualities. Sometimes, the Dao is represented as "one." The Dao is essentially nameless; however, if one must assign a name, "simplicity" is one of its appellations. The Dao is often metaphorically depicted as a "valley" or "mysterious feminine." It is like a valley—empty and expansive, thereby able to exist eternally and possess unfathomable abilities.
The Utility of the "Dao":
Cosmogony:
"All things in the world come from being, and being comes from non-being." The "ten thousand things in the world" come from the Dao, and the Dao encompasses all phenomena and entities. However, it is not a mechanical aggregation of phenomena and entities. Laozi's philosophy does not exclude or deny the existence of "being" or the differences in types and individual natures of things. On the contrary, it affirms the value of the natural existence of individual beings and opposes external interference that disrupts the natural essence of things.
The unfolding of the Dao leads to its manifestation in reality. For instance, "The Dao gives birth to One; One gives birth to Two; Two gives birth to Three; Three gives birth to all things. All things carry Yin and embrace Yang, they achieve harmony by blending the vital breaths." The Dao generates primordial chaotic gases, from which Yin and Yang arise. Yin and Yang then create a neutralizing force, leading to the creation of all things. Each thing possesses both Yin and Yang, which interact to create harmony. "Harmony" denotes the state of Qi circulation. The Dao nurtures and sustains all things. In terms of cosmogony, individual entities undergo a process of formation, such as the process of Qi transformation and condensation.
The Dao and Virtue, Essence and Utility, Emptiness and Use:
lao tzunot only discusses the Dao but also discusses "virtue." lao tzubelieves that the Dao fosters the growth of all things, while "virtue" promotes their proliferation. Therefore, all things revere the Dao and cherish virtue. Generally, the Dao accomplishes the virtue of all things, and virtue represents the Dao, inherent within the diverse and individual nature of each thing.
The essence of the Dao is closely related to its utility. The utility and creative power of the Dao stem from its essence of emptiness, transcending established norms and frameworks. This allows for the generation of new things through the interaction of "void" and "existence," "Dao" and "virtue."
The "Dao" is both "existence" and "void," manifested through its functions. lao tzudiscusses the aspect of "void" or "existence" primarily from the perspective of its functions. In the process of cosmic and phenomenal generation, "existence" provides the conditions for objective convenience. However, "existence" must combine with the creative activity and space (domain) or ethereal realm of "void" to create new useful entities and open up new realms. Therefore, lao tzustates, "The Dao always does nothing, but there is nothing it does not do." Actual utility is limited, but the utility of emptiness is infinite. The utility of non-use is the greatest use. The Dao possesses transcendence, absoluteness, universality, infiniteness, completeness, and ethereality.
Opposition as the Dynamic of the Dao, Weakness as the Utility of the Dao:
lao tzualso regards opposition as a utility. He believes that there is a certain law to the changes and functions of the Dao: "Opposition is the movement of the Dao; weakness is the utility of the Dao." In nature, society, and life, all phenomena tend toward opposite directions. Weakness often leads to strength, and life gradually leads to death. lao tzuobserves the interdependence and mutual growth of things.
The Practice and Realm of the "Dao":
Diminishing Knowledge, Cultivating the Dao:
According to Laozi, acquiring knowledge requires accumulation, using addition or multiplication, step by step affirmation. However, experiencing or grasping the "Dao" requires subtraction or division, step by step negation. In the view of lao tzuand his followers, genuine philosophical wisdom must start with negation, gradually diminishing the desire for external possessions, fame, and wealth, layer by layer removing biases, attachments, and errors, penetrating to the profound depths. "Increasing learning leads to increasing daily; decreasing the Dao leads to decreasing daily. Decreasing and decreasing again, one reaches non-action. Non-action leads to accomplishing everything." Diminishing knowledge, desire, and action is necessary to perceive the great Dao. "Diminishing" is a process of cultivation. When facing a phenomenon, one should view it superficially; when discovering a truth, one should consider it relatively true; and then proceed to delve into the inner meaning of truth. The essence and mystery of the universe and life can only be seen after peeling away layers of biases, ultimately penetrating into the inner spiritual life of humanity. "Non-action leads to accomplishing everything" means not deliberately doing certain things but acting in accordance with the natural order.
Warning against Knowledge, Desire, and Skills:
lao tzuwarns against the damage and destruction inflicted on innate wisdom, comprehension, virtues, and moral values by knowledge, desires, cleverness, gains, saints, wisdom, benevolence, and righteousness. He fears that cunning, limited knowledge, wisdom, and pursuit of small interests may overshadow and harm the innate nature of humanity, undermining its innate wisdom, intelligence, filial piety, and moral integrity. Daoists, through negation (not negating from the actual level of existence), dissolve the alienation caused by civilization, individual ego, and cultural norms, criticizing the Confucian virtues of benevolence, righteousness, loyalty, filial piety, rituals, wisdom, and trust, without eliminating all virtues. lao tzupursues genuine morality, benevolence, righteousness, trustworthiness, and filial piety. Therefore, fundamentally, he advocates innate goodness, love, loyalty, filial piety, and trustworthiness. He believes that the innate nature of humanity is inherently good, and returning to simplicity and genuine emotions is the greatest good. In this sense, lao tzuis also an advocate of the innate goodness of human nature, holding high hopes for humanity.
Cleansing the Profound Mirror:
"Cleansing the profound mirror" means washing away the dirt from the heart. In Laozi's view, distinctions between knowledge and desires, rational or value judgments, lead people to pursue external possessions, resulting in a wandering heart, deepening the separation between things, oneself, others, and nature, and deviating from one's true nature. lao tzubelieves that individuals with deep virtues, like innocent infants without knowledge or desires, are gentle and harmonious, with no distinction between body and mind, in harmony with the Dao. Conversely, those with excessive strength, arrogance, wealth, desires, and thoughts are not in harmony with the Dao.
Attaining Ultimate Emptiness and Maintaining Tranquility:
Striving for "emptiness" must be thorough, meaning not allowing too much existing, conventional knowledge, norms, interests, and skills to fill the mind. Instead, these should be excluded using negation to activate one's mind, keeping it spiritually sharp, with space for independent thinking. "Maintaining tranquility" means maintaining a state of calmness and equanimity, eliminating the disturbances of worldly desires, genuinely maintaining peace and focusing one's mind. Through the cultivation of attaining emptiness and maintaining tranquility to the extreme, individuals achieve the realm of integration with all things, equal contemplation, and unity with the Dao. Therefore, attaining emptiness, maintaining tranquility, and contemplation are both practices of cultivation and realms of life.
Clarifying the Realm:
lao tzubelieves that to see through and understand the diverse and dynamic world of all things, one must detach from various constraints, delve deeply into the abyss of existence, and avoid the entanglements of habits, external pursuits, and attachments. These entanglements can lead to the domination of one's self and the loss of the realm of unity with the universe. Therefore, lao tzuadvocates "suppressing sharpness and resolving complexity," "being in harmony with the light," "the spirit of the valley does not die," "returning to its roots," "increasing learning and decreasing Dao," "non-action leads to accomplishing everything," and "non-use leads to accomplishing everything." These statements argue that clinging to materialism, attachments, and actions obscures the mind and the body, whereas internal reflection, keen insight, clear awareness, and tranquility lead to genuine moral transcendence and a connection with the Dao.
Natural Non-action:
lao tzubelieves that all things should develop according to their own conditions, without interference from external wills. "Heaven and earth are not humane; they treat all things as straw dogs. The sage is not humane; he treats the people as straw dogs." Heaven and earth are indifferent; they have no kindness. They treat all things like sacrificial dogs, allowing everything to come and go naturally. Similarly, the sage treats people in accordance with nature, allowing them to grow naturally. lao tzuopposes rulers' "doing," which is imposing actions arbitrarily, as he believes that governing with excessive control leads to difficulties. The correct approach for rulers is "non-action." "Without doing anything, the people will be transformed on their own. If I am calm and the people will correct themselves. If I do not meddle, the people will become prosperous. If I do
not have desires, the people will be simple and honest." lao tzuhopes that rulers will be calm, refrain from disturbing the lives of the people, avoid enacting strict laws, and curb expansionist desires. Rulers who practice non-action allow the people to develop and flourish naturally, leading to peace, prosperity, and social harmony. However, natural non-action should not be understood as doing nothing. "The Dao always does nothing, but there is nothing it does not do." Although the Dao always acts naturally, it is involved in everything. The non-action advocated by lao tzuaims to let all things and people develop naturally, leading to a state of simplicity and peace, rather than passive neglect.
