Taoism in Maturation During the Northern and Southern Dynasties

During the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420–589), numerous Taoist reformers and theorists emerged, fundamentally renewing Taoism through their efforts. This period marked the religion’s gradual maturation.

In the Northern Dynasties, the iconic figure leading reforms of the Northern Tianshi Dao (evolved from the Zhengyi Mengwei Dao) was Kou Qianzhi (365–448), a renowned Taoist priest of the Northern Wei. As recorded in Book of Wei: Treatise on Buddhism and Taoism, Kou "practiced Zhang Lu’s techniques from youth," belonging to the Zhengyi Mengwei Dao. Later, he studied under Cheng Gongxing, entered Songshan Mountain for cultivation, resided in a stone chamber, and engaged in herbalism. In 415, he claimed that the Supreme Lord descended to the mountain peak, bestowing the title of Celestial Master and the 20-volume New Precepts of Cloud-Resonating Recitation, ordering him to "promulgate my new codes and rectify Taoism." Kou’s reform principle was "taking ritual norms as the core," with main measures to "abolish the false methods of the Three Zhangs—including grain taxes and the art of yin-yang union"—shifting Taoism to "prioritize ritual norms alongside dietary cultivation and meditation." Scriptural recitation was also changed from "plain recitation" to "musical recitation," accompanied by music.

The reformed Northern Tianshi Dao, known as the New Tianshi Dao or Northern Tianshi Dao, featured:

Kou’s reforms not only established the foundational framework of new Taoism in tenets, organization, scriptures, and rituals but also integrated emperors and nobles, aligning Taoism with the ruling class. This transformed it from a peasant-based religion into a cross-social-strata faith, marking a pivotal milestone in Taoist history. Consequently, the reformed Tianshi Dao spread widely and even became the state religion of the Northern Dynasties.

Following Kou, during the Liu Song Dynasty of the Southern Dynasties, Lu Xiujing (406–472), a Taoist priest from Lushan Mountain, reformed the Southern Tianshi Dao. Lu studied Confucianism in youth and loved literature, later abandoning his family to practice seclusion in Yunmeng Mountain. His reforms, outlined in Master Lu’s Taoist Regulations, included:

Under Emperor Ming of Song (465–472), Lu classified 1,228 volumes of Taoist scriptures (including Shangqing, Lingbao, and Sanhuang texts) into the "Three Caverns" (Dongzhen, Dongxuan, Dongshen), compiling the Catalogue of Three Cavern Scriptures in 471—the earliest Taoist bibliography, laying the foundation for the Daozang. He also perfected ritual protocols, integrating practices from various sects, authoring over 100 volumes on rituals. Inheriting the early Tianshi Dao’s "Three Officials" (Heaven, Earth, Water) worship, he standardized rituals like incense offering, petitions, and thanksgiving. The reformed Southern Tianshi Dao, though initially developing, was overshadowed by the Shangqing and Lingbao sects and gradually faded.

Shortly after, Tao Hongjing (456–536), a learned Taoist scholar in the Southern Dynasties, further synthesized and reformed Ge Hong’s Jindan Taoism, Yang Xi’s Shangqing tradition, and Lu Xiujing’s Southern Tianshi Dao, founding the Maoshan Sect. Residing in Maoshan, Tao collected Shangqing scriptures, authored Zhengao (Records of the Perfected) and Zhenling Weiye Tu (Chart of Divine Ranks), establishing a systematic pantheon. By opening monasteries and recruiting disciples, he made Maoshan the Shangqing Sect’s base, integrating various Taoist techniques and Confucian-Buddhist ideas. Tao advocated "dual cultivation of body and spirit," elaborating on meditation, qi cultivation, and medical practices in Yangsheng Yanming Lu. His medical works held significant status in Chinese medical history.