The Rise of Taoism in the Eastern Jin Dynasty
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By the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420), Taoism gradually rose from its decline. One manifestation was the significant development and initial systematization of Taoist immortality theories, marked by Ge Hong's Baopuzi: Inner Chapters—a seminal work by the theorist and practitioner of immortal Taoism.
Ge Hong (283–363), styled Zhichuan and known as Baopuzi, was a native of Jurong, Danyang (now in Jiangsu Province). As a renowned Taoist theorist, alchemist, and medical expert of the Eastern Jin, he dedicated his life to writing, cultivating longevity, and practicing alchemy. His magnum opus, Baopuzi, is divided into Inner Chapters (focused on Taoist immortality, elixirs, spiritual arts, and longevity) and Outer Chapters (discussing Confucian ethics and worldly affairs).
Baopuzi: Inner Chapters synthesized theories of immortality from the Warring States period, inherited Wei Boyang's alchemical theories, and integrated Jin Dynasty alchemical practices, citing 282 kinds of Taoist scriptures and talismans. As noted by Wang Ming, a leading Taoist scholar, this work is "a comprehensive classic in Taoist history, consolidating systematic theories and diverse practices." It enriched immortal Taoist doctrines, shifting Taoism toward the supreme goal of immortality, and marked the establishment of the Jindan (Golden Elixir) Taoist theory and the rise of elite immortal Taoism.
The second manifestation was the emergence of Taoist scriptural sects—Shangqing, Lingbao, and Sanhuang—after Ge Hong, formed through the transmission of sacred texts:
- The Shangqing Scripture series, initiated by Wei Huacun (252–334) and completed by Yang Xi (330–387) and Xu Mi (?-376), included classics like Shangqing Dadong Zhenjing and Huangting Jing.
- The Lingbao Scripture series, compiled by Ge Chaofu (Ge Hong's grandnephew), centered on Yuanshi Wuliang Duren Jing.
- The Sanhuang Scripture series, transmitted by Bao Jing of the Western Jin, included Sanhuang Wen and Wuyue Zhenxing Tu.
The Shangqing scriptures represented another reform and development of immortal Taoism by Yang Xi, Xu Mi, and Xu Hui, laying the foundation for the Maoshan Sect. Shangqing practice emphasized inner deities in the body, advocating meditation, breath control, and recitation to achieve immortality. Composed of noble scholars, this sect was readily accepted by the elite due to its focus on individual cultivation and cultural refinement.
The Lingbao Sect prioritized talismans, rituals, and charity, proclaiming "salvation for all." Integrating practices from the Tianshi and Shangqing sects, it attracted mass following and evolved into the Gezao Sect by the late Jin and early Song periods.
Other influential Taoist schools during the Wei-Jin era included the Li Family Tao, Bo Family Tao, and Yu Jun Tao, while later prominent sects like Louguan Tao, Longhu Sect, and Jingming Sect can trace their origins to this period.
