Sanshan Guowang (Three Mountain Kings) are local patron gods worshipped by people in eastern Guangdong (Yuedong) and Chaozhou natives in Taiwan. According to Mingkuang Temple Record written by Liu Ximeng in the Yuan Dynasty, the origin of Sanshan Guowang traces back to the myth of three divine beings guarding the three mountains in Lintian Du, Jiexi County. The three mountains are Dushan (Solitary Mountain), Mingshan (Bright Mountain), and Jinshan (Turban Mountain). It is said that three divine beings resided in a stone cave on Jinshan, commissioned by Heaven to guard Jinshan, Mingshan, and Dushan, and later evolved into Sanshan Guowang.
It is generally believed that the "Sanshan Guowang deity" originated in the Sui Dynasty, manifested its spiritual power in the Tang Dynasty, and was enfeoffed in the Song Dynasty. During the early Sui Dynasty under Emperor Wen, miraculous signs appeared on the three mountains in Chaozhou. Local people then built a temple at the foot of Jinshan to worship the gods of the three mountains, which has a history of over 1,400 years to date.
Starting from the Tang Dynasty, the three mountain gods became local mountain deities. People in Chaozhou paid homage to them with great reverence, holding regular annual sacrifices. Their main functions were to ward off disasters, bring blessings, and serve ordinary people. When Han Yu was demoted to the post of Chaozhou Prefect, excessive rain damaged crops. The people prayed to the three mountain gods, and the rain stopped. Han Yu then wrote Text for Sacrificing to the Boundary Stone and sent people to offer sacrifices at the ancestral temple.
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In the Northern Song Dynasty, the "Three Mountain Gods of Chaozhou" were credited with assisting Emperor Taizong in conquering Liu Jiyuan of the Northern Han Dynasty. Emperor Taizong thus issued an edict to confer titles: Mingshan was named "King Qinghua Shengde Baoguo" (King of Pure Transformation, Holy Virtue, and Protecting the Country), Jinshan "King Zhuzheng Mingsu Ningguo" (King of Assisting Governance, Brightness, Solemnity, and Pacifying the Country), and Dushan "King Huiwei Hongying Fengguo" (King of Benevolent Power, Vast Response, and Abundant Country). He also granted the temple the name "Mingkuang" and ordered the expansion of the temple, with joint sacrifices held at regular intervals. From then on, the three mountain gods were collectively called Sanshan Guowang, and their temples were also known as Mingkuang Temple.
During the Mingdao period of Emperor Renzong's reign, the title "Guangling" (Vast Spirit) was added. With imperial enfeoffment, Sanshan Guowang was elevated to a national deity, becoming a divine symbol serving imperial power. At that time, their regional influence was mostly confined to the Chaozhou area.
In the Yuan Dynasty, the influence and status of the three mountain gods became more prominent than in the Tang and Song dynasties. Temples of Sanshan Guowang were built in Chaozhou, Meizhou, and Huizhou. Apart from local people, "scholars from near and far" also came to worship them during "annual festivals" or "gatherings".
