The Tianshi Dao 天师道

In the first year of Han’an (142 CE) during the reign of Emperor Shun of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Ling (Zhang DaoLing) claimed at Heming Mountain to have received a mandate from Taishang Laojun (the Supreme Venerable Lord), who conferred upon him the title of "Celestial Master" and bestowed the newly revealed "Zhengyi Mengwei Dao" (Orthodox Unity Covenant of Majesty Dao). With this, he founded Tianshi Dao.

The establishment of Tianshi Dao marked the beginning of organized Taoism in China. The religious community founded by Zhang Ling referred to itself as Tianshi Dao; later, because it transmitted the "Zhengyi Mengwei Dao," it also became known as Zhengyi Dao (Orthodox Unity Dao).

Zhang Ling was originally a student at the Imperial University. He began studying Daoism in the fourth year of Yanguang (125 CE) under the Huang-Lao Dao tradition, which venerated Taishang Laojun, practiced the Laozi’s Five Thousand Characters (the Daodejing), the Yellow Emperor’s Nine Cauldrons Alchemy Method, longevity techniques, and also transmitted the Taiping Jing (Scripture of Great Peace).

During the reign of Emperor Shun, Zhang Ling led his disciples into Sichuan (Shu) and founded Tianshi Dao. At that time, witchcraft Daoism (Wugui Dao) was prevalent in Sichuan: witches and mediums, under the command of "demon kings" and their "ghost armies," used sorcery to deceive the people and amass wealth by pretending to communicate with spirits. Zhang Ling’s Tianshi Dao, an heterodox branch of Huang-Lao Dao that propagated the Taiping Jing, adapted to local Sichuan customs. He healed the sick with talismanic water, preached longevity practices such as qi circulation, daoyin (guided exercise), and sexual techniques, and adopted the title "Jijiu" (libationer)—used by scholars at the Imperial University—as a Daoist official title. He honored Taishang Laojun as the teaching master, took the Laozi’s Five Thousand Characters as a classic, and used "Three Officials Writings" to exhort believers to repent, repair bridges and roads, and take turns supplying rice, silk, utensils, paper, writing brushes, firewood, and other goods.

Tianshi Dao flourished in Sichuan but faced resistance from local Wugui Dao. However, Zhang Ling used Daoist magic to subdue the Eight Ghost Commanders and Six Demon Kings, forcing witches and mediums to submit to Tianshi Dao and refrain from competing for followers. He established prohibitions and precepts, venerated Taishang Laojun and the deity Taiqing Xuanyuan, and banned the worship of licentious or evil spirits. Governing the people with frugality, he not only cured their illnesses but also put an end to excessive sacrifices and theft, reforming social customs and winning popular support.

Tianshi Dao took root in Sichuan, compelling witches and mediums to convert and become Tianshi Dao’s libationers or believers. Even ethnic minorities "customarily fond of witchcraft and ghosts" embraced Tianshi Dao. Zhang Ling died in the Yongshou era (157 CE) of Emperor Huan, and his son Zhang Heng continued his teachings.

Zhang Heng, known for his integrity, secluded himself to practice Daoism, and the religious community saw little growth. After his death in the first month of the second year of Guanghe (179 CE) under Emperor Ling, Wugui Dao revived. Zhang Xiu, a witch from Ba Commandery, usurped control of the teachings, merging Tianshi Dao with local Wugui Dao. Followers were called "ghost soldiers," officials "ghost clerks," and teachings "wicked orders." He simplified missionary procedures and fees, collecting five pecks of rice uniformly (earning the nickname "Five Pecks of Rice Dao"). He organized a "Five Pecks of Rice Army" of believers, attacking counties and 呼应 (echoing) the Yellow Turban Rebellion led by Taiping Dao in the Central Plains.

In the fifth year of Zhongping (188 CE), Liu Yan, Governor of Yizhou, entered Sichuan, suppressed the Yellow Turbans there, incorporated Zhang Xiu’s Five Pecks of Rice Army, and appointed Zhang Xiu as a separate division commander. With the Han Dynasty in decline and warlords rising, Liu Yan harbored rebellious ambitions, using the excuse that "rice bandits block the roads, preventing communication" to stop paying tribute to the court.

Zhang Heng’s wife, who practiced Daoist techniques to preserve her youth and appeared young, preached at Liu Yan’s household. Liu Yan, attracted by her beauty, appointed her son Zhang Lu as Military Advisor for Righteousness, ordering him and Zhang Xiu to lead troops against Su Gu, the Governor of Hanzhong.

After Zhang Lu and Zhang Xiu killed Su Gu, they blocked the Xie Valley, and Zhang Lu then attacked and killed Zhang Xiu, reclaiming control of the teachings using the prestige of his grandfather and father. After Liu Yan’s death, his son Liu Zhang succeeded him; angered by Zhang Lu’s defiance, he executed Zhang Lu’s mother and younger brother. Zhang Lu then established himself in Hanzhong. Unable to conquer him, the imperial court appointed him as General of Pacifying Barbarians and Governor of Hanning.

Using military and political power, Zhang Lu established a Taoist kingdom in Ba and Shu, dividing the region into 24 "zhi" (administrative districts) as 政教合一 (unified religious and political) parishes. He retained some of Zhang Xiu’s practices while adding his own, still calling the tradition Tianshi Dao. Zhang Lu’s community continued the rule of collecting five pecks of rice, honored his grandfather Zhang Ling as "Celestial Master," his father Zhang Heng as "Successor Master," and styled himself "Shi Jun" (Master Lord). New believers initially followed Zhang Xiu’s Wugui Dao custom of being called "ghost soldiers," but after receiving the Dao and proving their faith, they were titled "libationers" according to Zhang Ling’s rules. "Zhitou" (district heads) and "Great Libationers" led believers, with the three Zhangs (Zhang Ling, Zhang Heng, Zhang Lu) revered as teachers. The Laozi Xiang’er Zhu (Annotations on Laozi for Beginners) was used to educate believers, and practices such as building "righteous lodgings" (free inns), lenient punishments, bans on killing and alcohol, collecting grain taxes, and registering households were implemented.

Zhang Lu’s community maintained Zhang Ling’s Huang-Lao beliefs, combining Zhang Ling’s Tianshi Dao with Zhang Xiu’s Wugui Dao. It was more sophisticated than Zhang Xiu’s group and better adapted to Sichuan’s local customs. While the community called itself Tianshi Dao, it was commonly known as "Five Pecks of Rice Dao" or still "Ghost Dao" in society.

In the 20th year of Jian’an (215 CE) under Emperor Xian, Zhang Lu surrendered to Cao Cao, was appointed General of the Southern Expedition, enfeoffed as Marquis of Zhong, and his sons were all made marquises. He led his followers northward and died the next year, buried in Ye City. After the community’s northward migration, believers spread across the country, and many aristocratic families converted. The name "Tianshi Dao" gained prominence, while "Five Pecks of Rice Dao" gradually fell out of use.

During the Northern and Southern Dynasties, Kou Qianzhi in the Northern Dynasties and Lu Xiujing in the Southern Dynasties reformed Tianshi Dao separately, transforming it into a mature temple-based Taoism with an organized church structure.

The title "Celestial Master" derives from the Taiping Jing. The Lixu (Continuation of Inscriptions) records that a late Han stele inscribed by Zhang Pu, a "rice witch libationer," already referred to "Tianshi Dao," but society generally called the three Zhangs’ community "Five Pecks of Rice Dao." The Book of Jin·Biography of Xi Jian mentions Xi Jian "following Tianshi Dao," and Book of Jin·Biography of He Chong notes He Tan "following Tianshi Dao," indicating that by the Wei-Jin period, historians recognized "Tianshi Dao" as its official name, except for referring to popular movements like Sun En and Lu Xun’s as "Rice Dao."

It is said that Zhang Wei, Zhang Lu’s younger brother, died in battle for refusing to surrender to Cao Cao. Zhang Wei’s fourth son, Zhang Sheng, and his wife traveled down the Yangtze to Wu (southeastern China), settling at Longhu Mountain in Jiangxi to practice Daoism. By the late Tang Dynasty, their lineage gradually developed into the Longhu Mountain Tianshi Dao community, which received imperial recognition in the Song Dynasty and became known as Zhengyi Dao.

The Genealogy of the Zhang Celestial Masters records the transmission of the Longhu Mountain community among Zhang Lu’s descendants.