What is Principle in Taoism? 什么是理
Paul PengWhat is Principle in Taoism?
A philosophical concept in ancient Chinese thought and Taoist philosophy.
The character Li was extremely rare in texts predating the Warring States period.
Four pivotal works from before this era—the Book of Documents, I Ching, Analects of Confucius, and Dao De Jing—boasted a rich vocabulary that largely laid the foundation for classical Chinese. Yet not a single instance of Li appears in these four texts. The character is found four times in the Discourses of the States; in the Zuo Zhuan, it appears four times excluding a quotation from the Book of Songs that reads "I demarcate my borders and regulate my lands". In these contexts, it merely referred to a title for ancient officials (judges in antiquity). Before the Warring States period, Li was either absent from major classics or only used in extremely rare cases to denote the demarcation of territorial boundaries or as an official title. At that time, Li was not only unused as a philosophical category but also had not become a basic lexical item in everyday language. All philosophical categories are reflections of real-world relations in human thought. The emergence of new social relations during the Warring States period gave rise to a social intellectual trend of seeking and debating Li, in which people regarded Li as the ultimate criterion for distinguishing right from wrong: "Thus, argument that does not conform to Li is false; knowledge that does not conform to Li is deceptive. The ancient kings punished deceitful and false people. For Li is the source of right and wrong."
(Lüshi Chunqiu·Li Wei)
What is Principle in Taoism?
This understanding spurred a universal pursuit of Li, manifesting in all spheres of life. In politics, for instance, scholars advocated "upholding one’s will and acting in accordance with Li" (Lüshi Chunqiu·Da Yu) and "contemplating the Li of the rise and fall of hegemons and kings" (Jing Fa·Lun). In military affairs, it was held that "a general must know the The Dao of heaven above, the Li of earth below, win the hearts of the people within, and grasp the enemy’s situation without" (Sun Bin’s Art of War·Eight Formations). In economics and finance, thinkers urged "discerning the Li of gold and wealth" (Guanzi·Sheng Ma). In speech and conduct, the principle of "acting in accordance with Li" (Guanzi·Xin Shu Shang) was espoused, alongside the teaching: "In all deeds, establish what benefits Li and abolish what hinders it—this is called righteous conduct. In all knowledge and discourse, pursue what benefits Li and abandon what hinders it—this is called sound reasoning. Deeds that deviate from this mean are wicked; reasoning that strays from this mean is heresy." (Xunzi·Ru Xiao). In epistemology, it was believed that "the perceptions and cleverness of the eyes and ears are unworthy of reliance; only cultivating the proper methods and acting in accordance with Li suffice" (Lüshi Chunqiu·Ren Shu), and that "he who knows the Dao must attain an understanding of Li" (Zhuangzi·Autumn Floods). If the Dao in the Warring States period denoted both the ontological foundation of the universe and, in some contexts, the laws of all things, then Li as a philosophical category referred solely to the laws of things, not the cosmic ontology. Xunzi spoke of the "Great Li", referring to the comprehensive truth as opposed to "being blinded by a single partial view".
The Zhuangzi mentions "Tian Li (Heavenly Principle)" twice: once in the Heavenly Movement chapter, quoting the Yellow Emperor as saying: "First respond with human affairs, then follow Heavenly Li"—here, Heavenly Li also refers to the inherent principles of nature, not the cosmic ontology. The other instance is in the Preserving the Vital Spirit chapter, recording a butcher’s words: "I meet the ox with my spirit, not with my eyes. My sensory faculties cease, and my spirit moves unimpeded. I act in accordance with Heavenly Li, cutting through the major joints, guiding the blade through the large cavities, following the ox’s innate structure." Here, "acting in accordance with Heavenly Li" is synonymous with "following the ox’s innate structure", meaning to dissect the ox in line with its natural anatomy and laws. Regarding Heavenly Li, Cheng Xuanying’s commentary notes: "Following the natural grain of the flesh, one never cuts across it and harms the ox." According to this explanation, Heavenly Li simply refers to the natural texture of the ox’s muscles, and by no means the cosmic ontology.
Taoist philosophy developed the concept of Li from pre-Qin thought, endowing it with multiple connotations in its theoretical system: First, Li as the inherent laws of things. As Ge Hong stated, "the Li of nourishing longevity and the methods of remedying harm" (Baopuzi·Zhi Li), where the "Li of nourishing longevity" refers to the laws of health and longevity cultivation. Second, Li as the supreme realm of Taoism, a state referred to in Taoist philosophy as "Tian Li (Heavenly Principle)": "Thus, one dwells in seclusion in remote mountains, concealing one’s brilliance like a fish hiding in the algae; one restrains the eyes that crave sight, turns away from colors that dim the vision, stops the ears that hanker for sound, keeps distant from noises that confuse the hearing; one purges and clarifies the profound insight, abides in passivity and embraces the One, concentrates Qi to attain softness, calms the mind with tranquility and simplicity; one casts away the delusory emotions of joy and grief, disregards the honor and disgrace of gain and loss, renounces the deadly poison of excessive indulgence in life, silences idle words at the heart of thought; one heeds the inner voice and thus perceives all things clearly, contemplates the inner self and thus sees no trace of form; one nurtures the spiritual root in the mysterious origin, eliminates covetous desires in contact with the world; one abandons trivial pursuits, governing the mind with joy and calm; one acts in non-action, thereby perfecting Heavenly Li." (Ibid.) Here, Heavenly Li denotes the supreme realm of immortality attained through the Taoist path of "diminishing desire again and again". Third, the unification of Li and the Dao, with Li regarded as the ultimate ontological foundation of the world. In this regard, Taoism shares common ground with Neo-Confucianism (Li Xue) of the Song and Ming dynasties. Li Daochun explicitly stated in his Three Heavens’ Essence of the I Ching: "I cite the Li of Confucianism and Buddhism to testify to the Dao, so that learners may know the three teachings are fundamentally one." He also wrote: *"Zen, Neo-Confucianism, and The Quanzhen Dao—three teachings established to guide later generations... When one comprehends that all myriad differences return to one unifying principle, both the inner mind and the outer world are bathed in the spring of enlightenment."* (Zhong He Ji, Volume 3). During the Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties, it was common for Taoist practitioners to quote Neo-Confucian concepts such as Li and Heavenly Li to expound Taoist doctrines. Volume Two of the Jade Pure Infinite Supreme True Wenchang Great Cavern Immortal Classic cites the Neo-Confucian ideas of Zhou Dunyi and other Song scholars to construct a Taoist ontology: "Where there is form, there must be Qi; where there is Qi, there must be Li. Li is Heavenly Li—pure and unadulterated, sincere and without falsehood. Buddhism calls it the Ultimate Reality, Taoism the True, Confucianism Sincerity. In essence, they are one and the same. Sincerity is the Dao of heaven, a truth fully elucidated by Zisi and Mencius. Since this sincere Li exists, there must be one who presides over it—this is what Zhou Dunyi referred to as the 'True of the Infinite' and the 'Essence of the Two Primary Forces and Five Elements'. Taoism states: 'The essence of the profound and obscure is supremely true,' and further: 'Within the True dwells the Divine.' Thus, in heaven, earth, and humanity—the Three Realms—this Li and this Divine inhere in each, giving birth to all things." The "Zhouzi" in the text refers to Zhou Dunyi, and the phrases "the True of the Infinite" and "the Essence of the Two Primary Forces and Five Elements" are taken from his Explanation of the Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate.
