Who is Yang Xiong 扬雄?

Yang Xiong 扬雄 (53 BCE – 18 CE), a philosopher of the Han Dynasty (also written as 杨雄, styled Ziyun), hailed from Chengdu, Shu County (present-day Sichuan Province).  

From childhood, he was diligent in study and well-versed in numerous classics. He held official positions including Gentleman of the Yellow Gate and Grand Master. Deeply influenced by Daoist thought, he established a philosophical system with "Xuan" (the Profound) as its highest category. "Xuan" is synonymous with "Dao" (the Way): "Xuan encompasses the way of heaven, the way of earth, and the way of humanity" (*Tai Xuan · Tai Xuan Tu* [The Grand Profound · Diagram of the Grand Profound]).  

In his work *New Treatise* (*Xin Lun*), the Han Dynasty thinker Huan Tan explicitly stated that Yang Xiong’s "Xuan" is equivalent to Laozi’s "Dao." The philosophical concept of "Xuan" originates from the *Laozi* (Chapter 1): "Mystery upon mystery, the gateway to all marvels." As the "Dao," "Xuan" serves as the ontological foundation of all things: "Xuan is profoundly obscure, giving form to all things without revealing its own shape. It relies on the void to generate principles, directs Shenming (Divine Light) to establish patterns, connects past and present to categorize all beings, and activates Yin and Yang to release vital energy. Through separation and union, heaven and earth are completed. As heaven moves ceaselessly, hardness and softness interact. Returning to their origins, beginnings and endings are defined. Through life and death, the essence of existence is illuminated" (*Tai Xuan · Tai Xuan Shu* [The Grand Profound · Explications of the Grand Profound]).  

In other words, Xuan is so profound that it cannot be seen, yet it unfolds all things and differentiates into Yin and Yang energies. The separation and union of these energies form heaven and earth. Yang Xiong "observed the principles of gain and loss in the *Book of Changes*, contemplated the interdependence of fortune and misfortune in Laozi’s teachings, recognized the shared gateway of sorrow and joy, and perceived the common realm of good and bad fortune" (*Tai Xuan Fu* [Rhapsody on the Grand Profound], from *Ancient Prose Garden* [Guwen Yuan]). This indicates his inheritance of the dialectical ideas from both the *Yizhuan* (Commentaries on the *Book of Changes*) and Laozi. He upheld Laozi’s view that opposites are interdependent and interconnected, stating: "Growth and decline coexist; nobility and humility interact" (*Tai Xuan · Tai Xuan Tu*). His recognition of the unity between opposites like "growth and decline" or "nobility and humility" is undoubtedly insightful. In discussing the relationship between "inheritance" (*yin*) and "transformation" (*ge*), he further developed Laozi’s dialectics, asserting: "The Dao involves inheritance, adherence, transformation, and evolution" (*Tai Xuan Ying* [Illuminations of the Grand Profound]).  

He summarized the Dao’s dynamics into three principles: "Inherit and follow natural patterns," "Transform and evolve in harmony with the times." "Inheritance" here means following the natural nature of things, embodying the Daoist concept of "letting nature take its course" (*ren ziran*). Yang Xiong explained: "The highest virtue in creation lies in following and embodying nature. The broader the foundation, the more robust the form; the narrower the foundation, the more fragile the structure. Following straight paths yields wholeness; following crooked paths leads to fragmentation. Thus, do not discard what exists or impose what does not. Like the human body, adding superfluous parts causes deformity, while cutting away essential parts causes harm" (ibid.). This view of "inheritance" emphasizes not artificially altering things’ natural states—preserving what is inherent and not forcing what is absent, as artificial interference leads to imbalance. This aligns with Zhuangzi’s naturalism in *骈拇* (Jianmu): "What is long is not excessive; what is short is not deficient. Thus, the duck’s legs are short, but lengthening them would cause sorrow; the crane’s legs are long, but cutting them would cause grief." However, Yang Xiong’s naturalism incorporates the idea of transformation, arguing that while things must inherit and follow nature, they also require change: "Nothing can emerge without inheritance, nor can it be completed without transformation" (*Tai Xuan Ying*).  

Yang Xiong also upheld Laozi’s warning against excess and arrogance, stating: "Steep slopes and sharp cliffs will collapse when their edge is extreme" (*Tai Xuan · Cong Rui Zhi Shi* [From Sharpness to Affairs]), and "Those at the peak of power face danger; those who preserve humility ensure safety" (*Book of Han · Biography of Yang Xiong*). He believed that reaching the extreme of any state inevitably leads to its opposite—climbing to the pinnacle of power invites destruction, while modesty ensures survival. Although Yang Xiong adopted many core Daoist ideas, he also critiqued and adapted them. He stated: "I accept Laozi’s teachings on morality, but I reject his rejection of benevolence and righteousness and his dismissal of ritual and learning" (*Fayan · Wen Dao* [Queries on the Dao in *Explications of the Law*]).  

His biography is recorded in *Book of Han*, Volume 87. His major works include *Tai Xuan* (The Grand Profound) and *Fayan* (Explications of the Law). Ming Dynasty scholars compiled his works into *Collected Writings of Master Yang* (*Yangzi Yunji*), and his writings are also preserved in *Complete Prose of the Han Dynasty* (Quan Han Wen), Volumes 51–54.