The Enrichment and Development of Taoist Scriptures in the Southern Dynasties

  Since the Liu Song Dynasty of the Southern Dynasties, the spread of Buddhism in China has become increasingly widespread. A large number of Buddhist classics and disciplinary studies were translated and introduced, Buddhist sanghas and monasteries were generally established, and the number of literati and refined scholars who became monks to study Buddhism in the Jiangnan region gradually increased, which dealt a fierce impact on Taoism.

  Buddhist scriptures could be obtained from the Western Regions and India, and widely circulated through translation and adaptation. However, most Taoist classics were created in the form of being "revealed" by the Supreme Lord Lao and various celestial deities, which greatly restricted the development of Taoist doctrines. Therefore, relying on spirit writing (fuji), rewriting chapters of Buddhist scriptures, and plagiarizing previous works on medicine, divination, fortune-telling, and prophecies became the main sources of materials for Taoist priests in the Eastern Jin Dynasty to compile Taoist scriptures. The large number of Taoist scriptures derived from this were a mixture of the authentic and the fake, chaotic and disorderly, with right and wrong confused.

  In the late Eastern Jin Dynasty, a large number of new classics such as Shangqing, Lingbao, and Sanhuang came out, enriching Taoist doctrines. However, during the process of passing down the scriptures, Taoist priests of various schools passed on errors and sealed themselves off from each other, which made many Taoist scriptures have unclear origins, no unified affiliation, and become lost and scattered.

  Lu Xiujing, as a great master of Taoism in the Southern Dynasties, integrated various Taoist traditions in the Jiangnan region, sorted out the chaotic classics and documents, and added Taoist disciplinary precepts and rituals. His purpose was not only to make folk Taoism put on an academic cloak to compete with the then-prevalent Buddhism, but also, as he "intended for kings to respect and follow", to gain the favor of rulers and make Taoism a religion of the official upper class.

  With the support of the powerful aristocratic ruling class in the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Taoism, through the reforms of famous Taoists such as Kou Qianzhi, Lu Xiujing, Gu Huan, Meng Jingyi, and Tao Hongjing, compiled and sorted out a large number of classics, developed its doctrines and teachings, formulated complete disciplinary rules, and enriched its fasting and sacrificial rituals. This enabled Taoism to evolve from a folk religion into an official orthodox religion in the form of a complete and mature religious group, standing side by side with Confucianism and Buddhism, and becoming an important part of Chinese cultural thought.